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How many actual horses is 1 horsepower?

Each horse pushed with a force that Watt estimated at 180 pounds. From this, Watt calculated that one horsepower was equivalent to one horse doing 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute.

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What is horsepower? Don’t look now, but the car expert in your life – the one with an opinion about everything on wheels – is scrambling to find a Wikipedia entry right about now. Despite horsepower being a universally known and oft-advertised measure of engine power—as well as the basis for countless car purchases and fuel on the fire of automotive bragging rights—very few people know the science behind the term.

The Genesis of Horsepower

To understand the roots of this unusual metric, we need to turn the clock back to the 18th century, when the advent of steam power was about to provide early retirement for a lot of hard-working horses. James Watt (1736-1819), a Scottish-born inventor and engineer, was trying to stir up interest in his new-and-improved version of the steam engine. The problem was, how could he pitch a product so new that there was no accurate way to measure the benefit it provided?

That's why Watt took an interest in the working horses that pulled, pushed, and lifted heavy loads in factories, mills, and mines. He was looking for a way to prove his stationary industrial steam engine could easily outwork them.

Calculating the Power of a Single Horse

He started by observing mill horses at work. Lashed to spokes radiating from a mill's central shaft, they turned the shaft by walking in a circle 24-feet in diameter, roughly 144 times in an hour. Each horse pushed with a force that Watt estimated at 180 pounds. From this, Watt calculated that one horsepower was equivalent to one horse doing 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute. To better understand this—and avoid unhappy memories of arithmetic class—picture a lone horse raising a 33-pound bucket of water from the bottom of a 1000-foot-deep well in 60 seconds. That amount of work equals one horsepower. Watt used his newly invented unit of power to compare how much work his stationary steam engine could do with that of a horse. It was the just marketing magic he needed to convince companies that the newfangled technology was the better power source. That breakthrough, as we all know, revolutionized both industry and transportation, and would eventually lead to the rise of steam ships and locomotives. And it's also why buyers of everything from muscle cars to lawn mowers owe a debt of gratitude to James Watt. Users of lightbulbs too. Engineers posthumously honored Watt by naming a unit of power after him, the watt. Ironically, one "watt," doesn't equal one horsepower. For the record, 1000 watts (1.0 kilowatt) is equal to 1.3 horsepower, and a 60-watt light bulb consumes 0.08 horsepower. In the end, the creation of horsepower was as much a result of good salesmanship as engineering savvy. James Watt knew that one without the other was like a cart without a, ahem, horse. To see the rubber-melting excitement lots of horsepower delivers, read about these white-hot 2019 American muscle cars.

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Rule 63 is often used as a shorthand to refer to gender-swapped characters.

One of the most common places where Rule 63 occurs is at comic book conventions, where cosplayers do not let their own gender identity or presentation stop them from dressing up as their favorite characters. For example, men frequently dress up as Wonder Woman or women as the Joker. The motivations for creating a gender-swapped counterpart vary. Sometimes Rule 63 is invoked humorously or playfully. Other times, it is done to make a social or political point, casting women as traditionally male characters to call out heavily male-dominated nature of many popular franchises. By recreating a male character as a woman, the creators may want to prove that female characters are just as viable as male ones. Rule 63 can also be evoked more generally as a statement about the fluidity of gender identity. Alternatively, when creators are remaking a familiar character from the ground up, gender-swapping a lead character can produce new storyline possibilities not possible with the original gender. For example, when Battlestar Galactica rebooted in 2004, the character of Starbuck went from a tough, cocky, cigar-smoking alpha male to being a tough, cocky, cigar-smoking alpha female played by Katee Sackhoff. This version of Starbuck would go on to become one of the show’s most popular characters. Rule 63 is often used as a shorthand to refer to gender-swapped characters. For instance, a Rule 63 Green Lantern or Rule 63 Batman render the originally male characters as women.

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